Personal Mobility in North Dakota: Trends, Gaps and Recommended Enhancements
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3. Literature Review - Other States' Mobility Plans

Much has been written in the past 30 years about personal mobility issues from both urban and rural perspectives. A review of applicable literature is discussed in this section of the study. While urban mobility studies have focused largely on funding and coordination efforts within communities, rural studies often highlight service shortfalls and necessary measures to fill these mobility needs.

The first section of the literature review looks at different transportation mode research findings such as bus transit, rail transit, and aviation. This is followed by a review of performance measures utilized to determine service shortfalls. Methods to fix these shortfalls, such as ITS (Intelligent Transportation Systems) technologies and coordination efforts between modes are then discussed followed by a summary of the findings.

3.1 Transportation Systems

Transportation systems vary widely in their scope and usage throughout the country. The following discussion highlights studies which have analyzed different modes to determine their structures and unique features. Different studies approach their analysis from varying points of view. Some studies begin by stating broad definitions of a transportation mode and what features it should include, while others bypass the general analysis preferring to start with the specifics of their local systems. This section begins with bus transit findings followed by rail transit, aviation, and finally bicycle and pedestrian system analysis.

3.1.1 Successful Bus Transit Characteristics

The Louisiana Statewide Surface Transportation Plan of 2003 began by defining the characteristics of a successful public transportation system. Characteristics included providing inexpensive mobility for the transportation disadvantaged in both urban and rural areas, reducing congestion, reducing traffic accidents, and reducing energy consumption, among others (University of New Orleans, 2003). To accomplish these goals, an efficient and economical public transportation system is needed.

The question of what qualifies a transportation system as being a model for the industry was included in a questionnaire distributed to the attendees of the surface passenger advisory council meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana. Responses indicated that public transportation management should be efficient and effective. Solid management, cooperation between providers, and marketing of public transportation are important elements of public transportation which can contribute to its efficiency and effectiveness (University of New Orleans, 2003).

The important equipment qualities of a public transportation system were found to include comfort, reliability, security, safety, cleanliness, and modern appearance. The system's routes and services are other features of a good transportation system. Responses indicated that public transportation should provide service to the transit-dependent population, elderly, handicapped, and minorities. Also there should be intrastate connectivity. From a passenger's point of view, service should be reliable and vehicles should arrive on time. Frequency of service is another qualification for a good transit system (University of New Orleans, 2003).

Affordability is another aspect that was found to be important in a successful public transportation system. In the industry, additional criticisms of the current pricing system can be found. This includes the current flat-fare pricing system, where fares do not vary with either distance traveled or time of day. Intermodal connectivity, for example between bicycle and bus, between bus and train, and between bus and automobile is another element of a good transit system.

3.1.2 Bus Transit Issues and Shortcomings

A Montana rural passenger-needs study conducted in 2001 by LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc. surveyed social service providers to gain information about the transportation needs of the low income, elderly, and disabled from the perspective of organizations that work closely with these mobility-impaired populations. Social service agencies were interviewed via written questionnaire about the transportation needs of the populations they serve. Approximately 130 agencies from across the state completed the questionnaire (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001).

Nearly all responding social service agencies (95 percent) indicated they serve people who have mobility limitations. On average, agencies estimate that 53 percent of the individuals they serve have one or more mobility limitations. This supports the idea that disadvantages such as physical disabilities, poverty, unemployment, or health problems often result in a lack of mobility for passengers. Age-related mobility impairments were found within 86 percent of the reporting agencies (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001).

The majority of agencies that provide transportation to their clientele use an agency vehicle. Only 26 percent of agencies charge participants for their transportation services. Agencies that provide transportation assistance usually identify public funding sources to aid in subsidizing their transportation needs. Responses indicated that 42 percent of agencies receive funding from their local city, county, or special district; 54 percent receive funding through donations, the United Way, fund raising, or volunteer workers; 47 percent receive state aid; and 51 percent receive federal aid (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001).

The majority of agencies (71 percent) limit the transportation that they provide to specific groups of participants and specific types of trips. Twenty-nine percent of agencies that supply transportation place no restrictions on who can use the services or how the services can be used. Over half (68 percent) of the restrictions are limits placed by the funding source. About three out of ten agencies also have their own agency policies limiting eligible travelers or trips (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001).

Agencies indicated a number of reasons that services via public transportation may be limited. Figure 3.1 shows the primary responses. Nearly half of agencies indicated that no existing service was in place; hours of service and the location of the service provided were other limitations of current services.

Figure 3.1 Limitations of Public Transportation in Montana
Figure 3.1
Source: LSC Transportation Consultants, 2001

Agencies were also asked how important they feel public transportation improvements are for seniors and people with disabilities in their community. Improvements needed that ranked the highest included:

Louisiana's Statewide Surface Passenger Transportation Plan (University of New Orleans, 2003) found that its urban public transportation systems are continuing to lose ridership. This study defined urban public transportation systems as those using more than nine vehicles. During the last four years, annual unlinked passenger trips decreased by 5 percent. With the exception of the Baton Rouge Capital Transportation Corporation (CTC), which has shown strong growth in recent years, and ATRANS in Alexandria, Louisiana, all other systems witnessed a downward ridership trend including the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority (RTA), the largest transit system in the state.

Primary reasons for the downward ridership trend included unreliable service, limited service to many high need locations, and limited regional service as the demand for such service continues to increase. The ridership increase for the CTC in Baton Rouge was largely due to an increase in transit equipment, new and expanded routes, provision of night service, reduced headways and more buses on selected routes (University of New Orleans, 2003).

Another major issue within the Louisiana study was the problem created by different programs that federal and state departments provide for specialized public transportation to various state departments. Different state departments receive funding from different programs for specialized transportation (non-emergency, medical, job access/reverse commute) from different federal departments, primarily the U.S. Department of Transportation, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and the U.S. Department of Labor (University of New Orleans, 2003). The multitude of different programs and funding categories has resulted in a duplication of many services throughout the state. In 1997, the governor's office established the Inter-Agency Transportation Coordination Committee (IATCC) to address this issue.

Because of the different funding programs, agencies with transportation as their primary mission (public transit agencies and agencies with other primary missions, i.e. human service agencies) are now both involved in specialized transportation services. This situation continues to cause problems. State departments receive money and distribute it to the local level, where decisions are made on how funds are spent. For example, a local community could decide the funds originally allocated for specialized transportation of the mentally handicapped be used instead for nutrition programs. Thus, specialized transportation funds are not always used for their intended purpose.

Also, if funding forwarded to the district office from the state department is used to provide specialized transportation, district offices have the freedom to choose which provider will be used. During an advisory council meeting for the Louisiana study it was suggested that on the state level it should be required that all government programs with a transportation benefit should use the public transportation provider first, before using private operators. The advisory council felt this would increase the service level and consequently customers would benefit (University of New Orleans, 2003).

Another issue is inadequate local match funding for transit, which is currently 20 percent for capital projects. It should be noted, however, that pending federal legislation proposes increasing the local match requirement to 40 - 50 percent (University of New Orleans, 2003). This is especially important for Louisiana cities, given their high level of poverty and weak economic conditions.

Transit service is limited throughout many areas in Louisiana. One of the major concerns remains the low service levels in rural areas. Further, many times there is a lack of inter-community coordination between the urban areas and surrounding rural areas. For example, the urban transit system in New Orleans, the RTA, mainly provides service within the city limits. There has been very little cooperation with surrounding communities until very recently. The service in the Alexandria urban areas is adequate; however, there exists very little connectivity to the rural areas. This leaves people in the rural areas with no alternative but to use private automobiles.

The following list summarizes the deficiencies in different areas of Louisiana as identified in the surface passenger advisory council meeting in 2002 (University of New Orleans, 2003):

3.1.3 Rail Transit

The following data is based on a recent on-board survey conducted for Amtrak (Amtrak, 2004). Results of the survey on a national basis indicate:

These results indicate that most Amtrak passengers utilize the service for long-distance, multi-day trips. Service and comfort while aboard the train are main factors to consider when such trips make up the normal travel pattern. In recent years, with the introduction of new management techniques paying special attention to passenger service, Amtrak ridership and revenues have increased significantly. The state of Louisiana, for example, has seen a more than 30 percent increase in ridership over the past five years (University of New Orleans, 2003).

Amtrak's improvements towards passenger appreciation and increased ridership largely stem from the Amtrak Reform and Accountability Act of 1997. Since the act was signed, Amtrak has been operating under a mandate to become "operationally self-sufficient" by fiscal year 2003. The Amtrak Reform Council was created to serve as an oversight body to monitor Amtrak's progress towards this goal. This law also provided Amtrak access to $2.2 billion in fund capital and other qualified expenses. The law also specified that "if any time after October 2000 the council finds Amtrak will not meet the goal of operational self-sufficiency by fiscal year 2003, plans for Amtrak's restructuring or liquidation must be prepared" (University of New Orleans, 2003).

On November 9, 2001, the Amtrak Reform Council voted six to five to report formally to Congress that it believes Amtrak will continue to require operating grants after November 2002 and therefore miss the requirement of the 1997 law regarding operational self-sufficiency. As a result of these findings, Amtrak President George Warrington resigned on March 7, 2002. His replacement, David Gunn, was appointed by the board of directors on May 15, 2002. Mr. Gunn has had a successful career heading transit and commuter rail systems in New York, Washington, and Boston and has instituted a new management structure for Amtrak. Amtrak's increased quality service, which has lead to the ridership spike, is believed to be largely due to Mr. Gunn's new vision and direction.

Minnesota and North Dakota receive Amtrak service via the Empire Builder, a long-distance train from Seattle/Portland to Chicago. Stations in North Dakota include Fargo, Grand Forks, Devils Lake, Rugby, Minot, Stanley, and Williston. Currently, one train serves these cities going eastbound and a second train travels westbound daily. Amtrak has identified potential service expansion of an additional train in each direction.

A tri-state high-speed rail feasibility study was conducted to evaluate the potential for various high-speed rail options in the Chicago-Milwaukee-Twin Cities corridor. This study considered incremental improvements from one speed threshold to another for long-range (five to fifteen-year) planning and implementation. It was designed to provide policy makers with information to evaluate and choose among route/technology alternatives, including the financial and institutional arrangements needed and a realistic timetable for successful implementation (MN Department of Transportation, 2003).

The Duluth passenger rail study was a preliminary study conducted by the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MN/DOT), which concluded that the potential exists to restore passenger train service between the Twin Cities metropolitan area and Duluth. Previously served by Amtrak, the 160-mile route was re-examined at the request of the Legislature to potentially renew the region's economic vitality, its historic demand for tourism and development of a major casino in Hinckley, MN. A similar study was done in Rochester, MN. The purpose of this study (Rochester rail link study) was to determine the feasibility of connecting the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport to Rochester International Airport with a high-speed rail line to move both passengers and cargo. The primary goal of this study was to determine if such a rail link could provide a viable transportation option for the Twin Cities and Rochester metropolitan areas (MN Department of Transportation, 2003).

MN/DOT's role in passenger rail transit is to develop and administer the state and federal programs for passenger rail transit. The rail planning function is responsible for developing passenger rail transit plans that guide public investment and provide necessary information about commuter rail, light-rail-transit and inter-city rail transportation in Minnesota. MN/DOT is also responsible for overseeing the delivery and construction of commuter rail and light rail projects (MN Department of Transportation, 2003).

Iowa also has produced studies focusing on the further development of passenger rail service within that state. Although there is no direct investment identified for rail passenger services in Iowa, efforts in monitoring and planning for rail passenger services continue. One effort underway is the Midwest Rail Initiative. Iowa is participating with eight other midwestern states, Amtrak and the Federal Railroad Administration in a study to determine the feasibility of a Midwest rail system. Three Iowa routes between Chicago and Omaha will be analyzed, including the Burlington Northern Santa Fe route in southern Iowa, the Union Pacific route through central Iowa, and the Iowa Interstate route in central Iowa (IA Department of Transportation, 1997).

Another Iowa effort will include an intermodal approach to develop an integrated intercity passenger service network. The department will analyze both east-west and north-south rail passenger service, along with commercial air and intercity bus, to identify the appropriate service levels to meet intercity travel needs. Results of these continuing efforts may suggest that investments in rail passenger service are necessary. If this is the outcome, further investments will be recommended and plan modifications will be made (IA Department of Transportation, 1997).

3.1.4 Bicycle and Pedestrian

A main provision of most transportation plans is to make bicycling and walking safer and a more viable way of travel. States have been using the funding available to make considerable improvements to their bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. Louisiana, for example, has only recently begun to address these issues. A state-level staff person coordinates bicycle projects and metropolitan planning organizations and various municipalities have been increasing their efforts to acquire increased funding to provide local bicycle and pedestrian facilities (University of New Orleans, 2003).

An important element in improving bicycle and pedestrian facilities is the consideration of bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure, where feasible, as an integral part of the design process for highway and transit projects. This includes not just recreational facilities but also consideration of those for whom bicycling and walking are their main forms of transportation. For example, state highway projects should consider the feasibility of wide shoulders for use by bicycles; the replacement of bridges should consider dedicated bike lanes and pedestrian walkways. Transit projects should consider getting bicycles onto buses or improving bicycle facilities at transit hubs as well. Improving bicycle and pedestrian facilities in Louisiana relates to planning which aims to protect and enhance the environment, promote energy conservation, and improve quality of life (University of New Orleans, 2003).

Most of Iowa's existing bicycle and pedestrian facilities do not serve explicit transportation purposes because they do not link major traffic generators to one another and they are designed to serve mostly recreational trips. Even so, interest in bicycling in Iowa has grown significantly in past years and is expected to continue to grow. Bicyclists carry the same rights and responsibilities as motor vehicle drivers and are legal on virtually all public roadways with the exception of the interstate system. Through public input it was determined Iowans want consideration of on-road improvements in highway and bridge design and continued financing of recreational trails with non-road use tax funds (IA Department of Transportation, 1997).

As a result of the above public input, the following investment guidelines which support the plan's overall themes have been developed for Iowa's bicycle and pedestrian system. These include:

In addition to the availability of a roadway system that serves bicyclists and pedestrians, Minnesota leads the country in miles of bicycle and pedestrian trails. These bikeways serve as an alternative mode of transportation for many Minnesotans that commute, shop and travel relatively short distances to their destinations. Nearly two out of three Minnesotans are bicyclists, many riding on the approximately 1,300 miles of trail available throughout the state (MN Department of Transportation, 2003).

Particularly in metropolitan and urban areas of Minnesota, walking is a primary mode of transportation. Whether an individual walks several times a day, uses a wheelchair to get from an office to the bus stop, rides a skateboard through the park, or walks across the parking lost from a car to the grocery store entrance, there is a strong need for well-designed and properly functioning pedestrian facilities. The highest level of pedestrian activity is currently found in urban areas, class one regional trade centers and some first ring suburbs. It is estimated that pedestrian-based trips reflect approximately 5.4 percent of total trips taken. The 2000 U.S. Census reported that the percent of workers 16 years and older who walked to work was 3.3 percent, down from 3.9 percent in the 1990 census (MN Department of Transportation, 2003).

The MN/DOT plays a key role in the development of biking and walking as a mode of transportation. Primary among those roles is to provide leadership and support for bicycle and pedestrian accommodation efforts in Minnesota communities. This is performed through a variety of functions, including:

3.1.5 Aviation

Components of air travel are a combination of time in the air, time at the airport, and time on the ground spent getting to and from a location. The US DOT "Intermodal Ground Access to Airports: A Planning Guide" (US DOT, 1994), reports the following facts found by surveying large hub airports, conducted in 1994, which are still applicable today:

Coordination between the roadway system and the airside of an airport is imperative to ensure adequate height clearance (for roadway lights and signs in the approach slope of a runway), adequate access, capacity, and signage.

Washington state's urban and rural communities are served by an airport system that provides mobility to Washington's citizens, visitors, and other traveling public. The strong performance by Washington's airports has been integral in the development and sustaining of the state's role in international trade. The economic benefits of major airports are well known and acknowledged, but less well known are the benefits to the state and rural communities provided by rural airports (Newkirk and Casavant, 2002).

Washington's study on the functioning and benefits of rural airports in their state identifies the wide range of benefits that rural communities receive because they have an airport. Study objectives included:

Case studies were performed in rural communities throughout the state. Communities included the Forks area, located in the northwest corner of Washington, the Omak area in Okanogan County in North Central Washington, and the Goldendale/Dallesport area in Klickitat County bordered by the Columbia River and Oregon in South Central Washington. The focus of the study was on the benefits that communities derive from rural airports and intentionally did not identify the specific benefits of each individual airport.

By design and with the agreement of the Aviation Division of the Washington Department of Transportation (WA/DOT), questions were of such a nature as to preclude using the information to discriminate, compare, or contrast one airport with another (Newkirk and Casavant, 2002). Phone and personal interviews were made with initial community contacts. A list of potential interviewees was then developed. Focus groups, individual interviews, and monitoring of city and county meetings provided data for further research. Not one person who was contacted declined to participate in the study.

Conclusions of the study found that the benefits airports bring to rural communities are many, varied, and critical to the economic well-being of a location. Rural airports improve the quality of life in rural communities. The individual benefits of rural airports include improving the quality of health care, supporting local businesses, providing critical emergency and disaster response, strengthening community, providing opportunities for recreation, military training, economic development and much more. Airports are, in several cases, a symbol of hope for rural communities fighting for their economic life. It is difficult to quantify the value of these benefits, yet they are real, even if not always noticed, to the people who live and work in rural communities (Newkirk and Casavant, 2002).

It was also found that having a constrained or diminished airport would decrease the quality of health care, decrease the odds of a viable economic future, reduce the ability of local, state and federal agencies to respond to disasters and emergencies, lower the viability of rural businesses, and lower the image these communities have of themselves. Overall, a quality airport gives a rural community a belief that its mobility is efficient and that further community growth will come with time.

Iowa's system of publicly owned airports provides a variety of passenger services. These airports serve local, regional and national markets while playing an important role in attracting business and industry to the state. Through a public input process it was determined Iowans want more and better commercial air service, more focus on regional airport development, and more safety improvements. As a result, investment guidelines which support the aviation plan's overall theme have been developed for Iowa's aviation system (IA Department of Transportation, 1997).

The public input process indicated the Department of Transportation, as an investment partner with federal agencies and local governments, should focus on supporting an effective system of regional airports while ensuring the preservation of efficient service and safety at all airports. The regional airports (defined by geography, service area, and jurisdictional control and management), in conjunction with the commercial service airports, would aid economic development on a broad basis by ensuring all areas of the state have top-quality airport facilities and access to services. Promoting this system of airports and the linkages they provide to all parts of the nation ensures a sound basis for Iowa's aviation future. Investments in these airports and the state's other airports will focus largely on improving commercial air service for Iowa residents (IA Department of Transportation, 1997).

3.2 Performance Measures

Data analysis tools are often used to develop a broader understanding of transportation system performance within an assigned area. Montana's mobility gap methodology, developed by LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc. (2001), is such a tool. This mobility gap methodology identifies the amount of service required in order to provide equal mobility to persons in households without a vehicle as to those in households with a vehicle. The trip rates for households with vehicles serve as the targets for those households without vehicles.

The Montana Rural Passenger Needs Study used household daily trip rates from the 1995 National Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) which are generated for households with and without automobiles. The 1995 NPTS data set was used to produce trip rate goals for transit-dependent services. The categories were broken out by MSA Urban (those areas within a Metropolitan Statistical Area), MSA Non-urban (those areas within a MSA but not urban, and Not MSA (non-urban or rural areas). The non-MSA areas are defined as those that have a population of less than 1,000 persons per square mile (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001). Discussion among the study's advisory committee members and the LSC Team led to applying a weighted value to the NPTS trip rates.

A highlighted note within the study explained that upon further review of the readily available census data, the most appropriate data for use in generating goal trip rates was the age of the householder by vehicle availability in urban and rural areas. Data from medium-sized communities was found to be inaccurate and not readily available. The target trip rates generated for each county were reflective of these limitations.

The mobility gap methodology was intended for use by officials from Montana agencies and jurisdictions using readily available data sources. Projecting future needs, demand, and operational requirements were the goals of the mobility gap methodology. Because household sizes are different for households with and without vehicles, the LSC team developed an approach which adjusted for the difference in household sizes. This approach starts with the person-trip rate from the NPTS for those living in zero-vehicle households and those living in households with vehicles. The weighted household size was calculated by dividing the expanded total number of people represented in the survey by the expanded number of households represented in the survey (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001).

Household trip rates were calculated by multiplying the person-trip rate by the household size. In order to adjust for the difference in household sizes, the person-trip rates for both households with and without vehicles were multiplied by the household size of households without vehicles. The household size of households with vehicles was not included in the calculations. This provides a household rate of zero-vehicle households as if they had vehicles, but with the same household size. The weighted trip rates were used to calculate the mobility gap for Montana counties (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001).

After determining the trip rates for households with and without vehicles, the difference between the rates was defined as the mobility gap with the equation:

((Trip Rate (HH w/Auto) - Trip Rate (HH w/out Auto) = Mobility Gap)).

These rates were again broken down by age (15-64 and age 65+). The gap between the trip rates would be the amount of transit service needed to allow equal mobility between households with zero vehicles and households with one or more vehicles. A larger mobility gap was found in the rural part of Montana when compared to the location within a metro service area but not located in an urban area. This study concluded its mobility gap analysis by multiplying the mobility gap calculation by the number of households without autos. This equation determined the trip needs to be served by a transit agency for a particular area. The mobility gap approach established a level of transit need for communities. A policy issue remains - how much of this unmet need should related programs be designed to satisfy? The mobility gap calculation was performed for all of the counties in Montana (LSC Transportation Consultants, Inc., 2001).

Other studies do not use the mobility gap as explained above. Most studies looked at current raw data and compare it to past results. For example, if passenger boardings at airports have fallen in recent years, there is assumed to be a problem with the state's aviation plan and steps need to be taken to correct the perceived problem. Similar methodology was used to distinguish problems concerning bus transit, rail transit and pedestrian and bicycle modes of travel. Louisiana's passenger needs plan is an example of a study that looked in depth at specific counties to determine specific issues that each community faces. This case study approach provided more specific answers for individual community leaders in an attempt to target specific services to meet unmet needs.

3.3 ITS Development

Over the last 10 years, the U.S. Department of Transportation has made the application of ITS technologies a high priority across modes. It has been especially interested in its use regarding traffic congestion, highway safety, and in a variety of areas in public transit. Relative to public transit, ITS can range from on-board video surveillance systems to smart card fare boxes. On-board equipment monitors and computers are also included within the range of ITS. Currently ITS is being implemented throughout the United States within numerous travel modes designed to increase mobility for passengers along with improved efficiency for the specific travel mode.

The state of Vermont developed a statewide ITS strategic plan to guide the state in deploying ITS technologies. The plan helped identify ITS applications that are most relevant to the unique nature of the state of Vermont and the needs of its travelers. In addition, the plan will ensure that ITS deployment is conducted in an incremental, integrated fashion and in conformity with the National ITS architecture. The plan is designed to reflect the character of Vermont, with its rural environment, natural beauty, harsh winter climate, and flourishing tourism industry (University of Vermont, 2002).

The study's steering committee, headed by the Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTrans) recommended that three short-term project areas should be studied. These included Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS), Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS), and Safety-related Projects. A list of projects was recommended under each of these general areas.

The ATMS project involved the establishment of a statewide Transportation Management and Information Center (TMIC). The TMIC acts as the primary point of coordination for managing transportation resources. The center is responsible for the collection, fusion, analysis and dissemination of information on the status of the transportation system, focusing first on the interstate and major arterials network. The center receives its information from a number of sources, including roadside traffic detection devices, roadway weather information systems, links to emergency management centers, and motorists' reporting of unusual events. The center also receives information on any scheduled road construction work from the appropriate departments (University of Vermont, 2002).

The ATIS project aimed at developing a statewide information system for Vermont for disseminating the information being collected by the TMIC, as well as other information collected from other sources. Steps for deploying this system were taken under the umbrella of two major ITS initiatives: (1) the Tri-State Rural Advanced Traveler Information System project and (2) the Connect Vermont Project. The first was a regional ITS project that included the three northern New England states (Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine). The overall project included 10 modules implemented in three phases over a six-year time frame. Key participants of the steering team included the departments or agencies of Transportation and Tourism from the participating three states. The technology vendor was Castle Rock Consultants (University of Vermont, 2002).

Under the safety-related projects, two main projects were identified. Both were considered stand-alone projects geared towards the rural sections of Vermont. The Downhill Truck Speed Warning System was designed to improve driver safety by warning the truck driver of potential collisions and rollovers. The speed warning system uses a combination of radar gun and weigh-in-motion technology to determine the safe descent speed for trucks for a designed curve and downgrade. The Portable Traffic Management System represented an integration of existing and emerging traffic management technologies into a complete portable traffic control system for use in managing traffic during major events and around work zones (University of Vermont, 2002). This system is portable, wireless and able to withstand the elements within the work zone.

South Dakota developed its own rural ITS deployment plan in 2001. The plan was put into motion to achieve several objectives:

The approach to developing the ITS deployment plan was facilitated by an advisory committee, which provided direction and review of all the products developed throughout the process. The approach was based on addressing the needs of agencies with transportation-related interests and the traveling public. Consideration of needs, issues, and opportunities to improve safety and rural transit were underlying elements throughout the project. In order to develop a deployment plan several key steps had to be taken. First, a user needs assessment was performed. Second, the current ITS environment in South Dakota was documented to gain a better understanding of potential shortfalls in regard to technology. Third, a strategic direction was established based on current ITS environment findings. Finally, projects were recommended for deployment within the overall plan (Castle Rock Consultants, 2001).

The vision developed for the South Dakota Rural ITS program was that the South Dakota Department of Transportation in cooperation with other public and private agencies will build an integrated, rural ITS program. This program will enhance the safety and mobility of the traveling public on South Dakota's roads and stimulate the economic condition of the state through the application of advanced technologies (Castle Rock Consultants, 2001). This vision led to the development of the deployment plan and, most significantly, to the identification of projects for further consideration.

The study sought to develop projects that benefit a number of stakeholder agencies. ITS is an area where a number of agencies can benefit from advanced technologies through coordination. Projects that have been proven successful in other areas were also given great consideration. There was found to be little use in duplicating research which had already led to successful implementation of technologies. Cost-effective projects were found to be important as well. The most logical ITS choices involved methods of attaining the same results, but requiring less funding to do so. An emphasis was placed on solutions that would make the most efficient use of resources. Finally, projects that emphasized safety were found to be of greater significance. South Dakota is a geographically large, sparsely populated state. Traveling between towns can involve a one-hundred mile trip and the safety of rural travelers that spend a great deal of time on the road posed a unique problem that ITS projects would aim to address (Castle Rock Consultants, 2001).

3.4 Improved Mobility through Coordination

The Iowa Department of Transportation conducted a study in 2003 regarding the coordination of public transit services and school transportation. This study described the efficiencies that could be obtained by coordinating transit management and maintenance systems in the areas of school transportation, public transit, and other forms of public transportation. The Center for Transportation Research and Education (CTRE) studied these issues and prepared the final report. CTRE conducted a survey of the 35 transit agencies in Iowa and school districts served by public transportation agencies to determine the extent of possible coordination. Findings showed that 23 transit agencies coordinate in some manner with more than 45 school districts (Andrle et al., 2003).

The report highlighted three main types of coordinated resources including capacity, specialized vehicles equipped to serve passengers with disabilities, and infrastructure through which savings can occur. Capacity is the measure of seating room on a vehicle. Transit ridership often experiences sharp, directional peaks, leaving unused capacity available in the off-peak direction. Des Moines is a successful example of a community which has used this off-peak capacity for school transportation. Because transit vehicles must also be equipped with a lift to accommodate disabled riders, school districts can contract with public transit to transport students with special needs to school as well. Available infrastructure such as fueling stations, tire purchases and vehicle maintenance can be coordinated also. Iowa has some cases of transit-school coordination using this model (Andrle et al., 2003).

Almost all regional transit systems carry students with disabilities for at least one school district in rural areas. They use the lift-equipped buses which are already operated for transit service. This relieves the school districts of buying special-purpose vehicles for a small number of students. Another form of coordination in rural areas is the use of transit buses to carry school children that live in locations difficult to serve with larger school buses. The regions' transit buses provide a subscription service for these students, typically saving the school district the cost of another bus and driver (Andrle et al., 2003).

Table 3.1 presents the estimated net public savings on operating costs for the nine case study transit systems researched in this study. The total net public savings from coordination was found to be at least $1,201,000 per year.

Table 3.1 Estimated Net Public Savings from Coordination
Transit System Savings from coordination
Des Moines$400,000
Five Seasons (Cedar Rapids)$325,000
Iowa City$60,000
Ames$13,000
Marshalltown$12,000
Ottumwa$64,000
Fort Dodge$30,000
NEICAT$27,000
Vehicle Capital Savings$270,000
Total net public savings$1,201,000
Source: Andrle et al., 2003

The study found that the greatest barrier to coordination, in the eyes of the public, was the perceived relative safety of school buses and transit vehicles. Safety data indicates that both services are excellent, but the issue becomes complicated by the many combinations of vehicle types and operating environments. Many school districts operate sedans, vans, sport utility vehicles, and four types of school buses while transit agencies operate at least three classes of transit vehicles throughout a wide variety of street conditions. It was important to consider the applicable vehicle safety standards and operating conditions when evaluating safety issues while keeping strict records of driver qualifications for both school and transit buses as well.

CTRE found that coordination occurs when circumstances offer a win-win opportunity and managers are willing to work together. Typically this occurs when a public transit agency has capacity and vehicles that meet a school district's specific needs. Both transit and school bus managers are aware of their cost of operation. When either faces a service requirement that would require adding buses or staff, they will look to other providers and develop a cost-effective solution (Andrle et al., 2003).

3.5 Summary

Personal mobility issues are unique not just to states, but to specific locations within state borders. This diversity makes modeling the use of other state mobility practices difficult to duplicate in North Dakota. However, other studies do provide baseline techniques which can be used, in theory if not further, to develop modeling applications for North Dakota's future personal mobility needs. Specific modal research provides insight that may steer the future direction of this current research through to fruition. Advanced technologies and coordination efforts also provide benchmarks for North Dakota to consider as it moves toward setting new mobility goals throughout the state. The following chapter will highlight passenger service information in North Dakota while developing system profiles and evaluating system performance.

References

Major Literature Review Resources


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